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Children as young as 5 can navigate a 'tiny town': New insights into how the brain develops navigational skills

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-children-young-tiny-town-insights.html

Published: May 5, 2025 17:11

Many behavioral studies suggest that using landmarks to navigate through large-scale spaces—known as map-based navigation—is not established until around age 12.

Vagus nerve stimulation provides long-term benefits for PTSD patients in clinical study

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-vagus-nerve-term-benefits-ptsd.html

Published: May 5, 2025 16:34

In a first-of-its-kind clinical study, scientists at the University of Texas at Dallas and Baylor University Medical Center have shown that patients with treatment-resistant PTSD were symptom-free up to six months after completing traditional therapy…

One protein mitigates Huntington's disease, and one exacerbates it

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-protein-mitigates-huntington-disease-exacerbates.html

Published: May 5, 2025 15:50

A decade ago, University at Buffalo researchers shed some light on an enduring neuroscience mystery: How exactly does a mutated huntingtin protein (HTT) cause Huntington's disease?

Age-related brain changes linked to declining exercise habits after 49, research suggests

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-age-brain-linked-declining-habits.html

Published: May 5, 2025 13:37

It's well-established that as we age, we tend to be less active. Conventional wisdom points to loss of muscle mass, strength and issues of mobility as reasons physical activity declines later in life.

Exploring how people face moral dilemmas

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-exploring-people-moral-dilemmas.html

Published: May 5, 2025 13:00

People typically evaluate the preferences of both themselves and others before making decisions in moral dilemmas. Researchers have theorized how people face moral dilemmas, but experimental data is lacking.

How is handedness linked to neurological disorders?

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-handedness-linked-neurological-disorders.html

Published: May 5, 2025 12:42

The fact that left-handedness and mixed-handedness are strikingly common in patients with certain neurological disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders, is a frequently reported observation in medical practice. The reason handedness is associated with…

Rare spinal tumor removed through patient's eye socket

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-rare-spinal-tumor-patient-eye.html

Published: May 5, 2025 11:29

In a first-of-its-kind surgery, a team led by a University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC) neurosurgeon has successfully removed a rare cancerous tumor wrapped around the spine and spinal cord of a 19-year-old woman—through her eye socket (orbit).

Preterm infant with drug-resistant seizures responds to antisense oligonucleotide treatment

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-preterm-infant-drug-resistant-seizures.html

Published: May 5, 2025 10:00

Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München-led researchers have induced a greater than 60% reduction in seizure frequency in a preterm infant with early-onset SCN2A developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE). Seizures initially occurred at a rate of 20…

New brain mapping technique sheds light on Alzheimer's development

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-brain-technique-alzheimer.html

Published: May 5, 2025 09:30

Researchers at Tulane University have created a first-of-its-kind subcellular map of an area of the brain commonly affected by Alzheimer's disease, a key step toward unraveling the mysteries of how the degenerative brain disease develops.

Music mindfulness may treat symptoms of anxiety and depression

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-music-mindfulness-symptoms-anxiety-depression.html

Published: May 5, 2025 08:32

Listening to music while performing mindfulness exercises targets neural and cardiac mechanisms in the brain that may treat symptoms of anxiety and depression, according to a new study led by Yale School of Medicine researchers.

Large-scale study explores lifespan changes in the human brain's functional connectivity

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-large-scale-explores-lifespan-human.html

Published: May 5, 2025 08:30

From birth to the last moments of life, the human brain is known to change and evolve significantly, both in terms of its physical organization (i.e., structural connectivity) and the coordination between different brain regions (i.e., functional…

Scientists identify potential new target for neurodegenerative diseases

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-scientists-potential-neurodegenerative-diseases.html

Published: May 5, 2025 07:57

Monash University scientists have identified a potential new drug target to alleviate neuroinflammation, which is reported in many neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and motor neuron disease.

A comprehensive look at what happens in the brain when we're reading

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-comprehensive-brain.html

Published: May 4, 2025 09:00

Reading is a highly valuable skill that allows humans to acquire new knowledge, pursue an education and complete a wide range of real-world tasks. Many past psychology and neuroscience studies set out to better understand the neural underpinnings of…

How does consciousness work? Dueling scientists test two big theories but find no winner

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-consciousness-dueling-scientists-big-theories.html

Published: May 3, 2025 12:40

"Theories are like toothbrushes," it's sometimes said. "Everybody has their own and nobody wants to use anybody else's."

Skin-to-skin contact improves breastfeeding but not cognitive outcomes in very preterm infants: Clinical trial

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-skin-contact-breastfeeding-cognitive-outcomes.html

Published: May 3, 2025 09:50

Researchers led by the Trondheim University Hospital in Norway report that two hours of immediate skin-to-skin contact between mothers and very preterm infants after birth does not improve cognitive, motor, or language development by age 2 to 3 years.…

The future of brain activity monitoring may look like a strand of hair

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-future-brain-strand-hair.html

Published: May 2, 2025 11:54

The future of electroencephalography (EEG) monitoring may soon look like a strand of hair. In place of the traditional metal electrodes, a web of wires and sticky adhesives, a team of researchers from Penn State created a hairlike device for long-term,…

Object recognition shaped by prior experience as brain adapts to new visual information, study shows

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-recognition-prior-brain-visual.html

Published: May 2, 2025 11:27

Our brains begin to create internal representations of the world around us from the first moment we open our eyes. We perceptually assemble components of scenes into recognizable objects thanks to neurons in the visual cortex.

Editing Parkinson's disease—discovery of an inflammatory RNA editing enzyme

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-parkinson-disease-discovery-inflammatory-rna.html

Published: May 2, 2025 11:00

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder in which the α-synuclein protein abnormally aggregates within brain cells, causing neuronal damage. Through international collaboration, researchers at KAIST have revealed that RNA editing plays a…

Brain interface allows speech decoding and computer control in ALS patient

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-brain-interface-speech-decoding-als.html

Published: May 2, 2025 09:49

University of California, Davis researchers have developed a brain-computer interface (BCI) that enables computer cursor control and clicking, using neural signals from the speech motor cortex. One participant with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) used…

Decoding the brainstem: A new window into brain–body–mind interactions

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-decoding-brainstem-window-brainbodymind-interactions.html

Published: May 2, 2025 09:04

The communication between the brain and bodily organs is fundamental to emotion regulation and overall mental health. The nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) in the brainstem is a critical hub structure mediating this interaction via the vagus nerve. Despite…

Zinc-transporting protein contributes to aggressive growth of brain tumor, researchers find

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-zinc-protein-contributes-aggressive-growth.html

Published: May 1, 2025 17:12

In a study published Wednesday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, University of Oklahoma researchers detail their discoveries about why the brain tumor glioblastoma is so aggressive. Their findings center on ZIP4, a protein that…

Chimeric brain models can help bridge the gap between animal studies and human neurological disorders

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-chimeric-brain-bridge-gap-animal.html

Published: May 1, 2025 16:35

A specialized model used by researchers is becoming a valuable tool for studying human brain development, diseases and potential treatments, according to a team of scientists at Rutgers University-New Brunswick.

How researchers discovered specific brain cells that enable intelligent behavior

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-specific-brain-cells-enable-intelligent.html

Published: May 1, 2025 15:30

For decades, neuroscientists have developed mathematical frameworks to explain how brain activity drives behavior in predictable, repetitive scenarios, such as while playing a game. These algorithms have not only described brain cell activity with…

Molecular double agent: Protein 'Eato' plays surprising role in protecting the brain

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-molecular-agent-protein-eato-plays.html

Published: May 1, 2025 15:27

A team of researchers at Cornell University has made a discovery in fruit flies that could change the way we understand brain diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's in humans.

What causes RFK Jr.'s strained and shaky voice? A neurologist explains this little-known disorder

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-rfk-jr-strained-shaky-voice.html

Published: May 1, 2025 13:43

Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. has attracted a lot of attention for his raspy voice, which results from a neurological voice disorder called spasmodic dysphonia.

Alzheimer's biomarkers detected in other dementias may blur diagnostic boundaries

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-alzheimer-biomarkers-dementias-blur-diagnostic.html

Published: May 1, 2025 11:00

An international collaboration led by the University of Gothenburg report that cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers associated with Alzheimer's pathology—specifically β-amyloid and tau proteins—are also present in individuals diagnosed with other forms of…

Brain-computer interface allows paralyzed users to customize their sense of touch

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-brain-interface-paralyzed-users-customize.html

Published: May 1, 2025 05:00

University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine scientists are one step closer to developing a brain-computer interface, or BCI, that allows people with tetraplegia to restore their lost sense of touch.

Mom's hypertension can affect preterm infant brain and neurodevelopment, experts report

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-mom-hypertension-affect-preterm-infant.html

Published: May 1, 2025 04:41

Many women already know that preeclampsia—a dangerous form of high blood pressure during pregnancy—can lead to serious complications including kidney failure, stroke, and even death. Preeclampsia is also a well-known cause of preterm birth, which can pose…

Discovery that microglia can be effectively replaced could transform cell therapy for brain diseases

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-discovery-microglia-effectively-cell-therapy.html

Published: April 30, 2025 16:00

An international research team led by Professor Kiavash Movahedi from the Brussels Center for Immunology at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel has published unexpected results in the journal Immunity. Their study sheds new light on the possibility of…

Biological age linked to dementia risk in large population study

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-biological-age-linked-dementia-large.html

Published: April 30, 2025 16:00

People whose biological age is higher than their chronological age may be more likely to develop dementia than people whose biological age matches or is lower than their chronological age, according to a study published online in Neurology. Biological age…

New 'hidden in plain sight' facial and eye biomarkers for tinnitus severity could unlock path to testing treatments

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-hidden-plain-sight-facial-eye.html

Published: April 30, 2025 14:40

Researchers at Mass General Brigham have identified new biomarkers for tinnitus by measuring pupil dilation and subtle facial movements that correlate with the level of distress caused by the disorder. Published in Science Translational Medicine, the…

Mechanism behind Parkinson's-like side effects of antipsychotic drugs revealed

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-mechanism-parkinson-side-effects-antipsychotic.html

Published: April 30, 2025 14:39

A new Northwestern Medicine study has identified the molecular mechanisms that cause a commonly prescribed antipsychotic drug to produce harmful side effects similar to Parkinson's disease symptoms, according to findings published in Molecular Psychiatry.

Live human brain tissue reveals how Alzheimer's-linked protein damages connections

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-human-brain-tissue-reveals-alzheimer.html

Published: April 30, 2025 14:37

Scientists using living human brain tissue have shown for the first time how a toxic form of a protein linked to Alzheimer's can stick to and damage the connections between brain cells.

Machine learning brings new insights to astrocytes' role in heroin addiction and relapse

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-machine-insights-astrocytes-role-heroin.html

Published: April 30, 2025 14:00

Object recognition software is used by law enforcement to help identify suspects, by self-driving cars to navigate roadways and by many consumers to unlock their cell phones or pay for their morning coffee.

Ayahuasca's longer-term psychological effects may be shaped by setting, acute reaction and mental health history

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-ayahuasca-longer-term-psychological-effects.html

Published: April 30, 2025 14:00

Mounting evidence supports ayahuasca's potential to improve mental health, but its long-term effects are shaped by both individual mental health history and the context in which the psychedelic is used, according to a study published on in the open-access…

3D mouse brain atlas promises to accelerate studies of neurological disorders

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-3d-mouse-brain-atlas-neurological.html

Published: April 30, 2025 14:00

A new "atlas" developed by researchers at Duke University School of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, and the University of Pittsburgh will increase precision in measuring changes in brain structure and make it easier to share…

Compromised synapse-clearing ability linked to autism

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-compromised-synapse-ability-linked-autism.html

Published: April 30, 2025 13:25

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition in which affected individuals experience difficulties in social communication and exhibit restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior or interests.

As a neuroscientist, I've seen the impact of harsh words on children's brains—we need to prevent childhood verbal abuse

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-neuroscientist-ive-impact-harsh-words.html

Published: April 30, 2025 13:08

Harsh words can wound—and when directed at children, they can have a lifelong impact.

A protein link between brain diseases and leaky blood vessels

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-protein-link-brain-diseases-leaky.html

Published: April 30, 2025 12:20

Reduced levels of a critical protein are linked to devastating brain diseases like Alzheimer's, frontotemporal dementia, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Surprisingly, the protein shortage primarily affects the brain's blood vessels.

Learning new motor skills: Active exploration, not imitation, builds sense of agency

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-motor-skills-exploration-imitation-agency.html

Published: April 30, 2025 12:02

The sensation of controlling one's body and things in the environment is known as sense of agency (SoA). Not only is SoA pivotal for tasks and well-being in everyday life, but its mechanisms have become increasingly important for the development of…

Crowdsourcing the brain: Meta-atlas reveals new clues about development and disease

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-crowdsourcing-brain-meta-atlas-reveals.html

Published: April 30, 2025 12:02

One in three Americans is likely to be affected by a brain disorder in their lifetime. Many of these conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease or severe developmental disorders, have no reliable treatment.

Brain rhythms synchronize with music to create emotional and physical responses

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-brain-rhythms-synchronize-music-emotional.html

Published: April 30, 2025 12:00

An international study co-authored by McGill psychologist Caroline Palmer suggests our brains and bodies don't just understand music, they physically resonate with it. These discoveries, based on findings in neuroscience, music, and psychology, support…

Experiment sheds new light on the origins of consciousness

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-consciousness.html

Published: April 30, 2025 11:00

An experiment seven years in the making has uncovered new insights into the nature of consciousness and challenges two prominent, competing scientific theories: Integrated Information Theory (IIT) and Global Neuronal Workspace Theory (GNWT).

Boosting clusterin protein may help protect the brain from Alzheimer's damage

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-boosting-clusterin-protein-brain-alzheimer.html

Published: April 30, 2025 11:00

Recently approved Alzheimer's drugs offer a step forward for treating the disease, but new therapeutic strategies are needed to complement them and provide personalized therapeutic approaches. Mass General Brigham researchers have identified a potential…

Mechanism by which the brain weighs positive vs. negative social experiences revealed

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-mechanism-brain-positive-negative-social.html

Published: April 30, 2025 11:00

Mount Sinai researchers have identified for the first time the neural mechanisms in the brain that regulate both positive and negative impressions of a social encounter, as well as how an imbalance between the two could lead to common neuropsychiatric…

Virtual reality game integrates smell to fight cognitive decline

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-virtual-reality-game-cognitive-decline.html

Published: April 30, 2025 10:31

One promising strategy to counter cognitive decline is through olfactory stimulation—engaging the sense of smell. Smell signals travel directly to brain regions involved in memory and emotion. Building on this knowledge, a joint research team from…

Parallel activity in orbitofrontal cortex and hippocampus shapes cognitive maps and schemas, study suggests

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-parallel-orbitofrontal-cortex-hippocampus-cognitive.html

Published: April 30, 2025 06:30

As humans and other animals navigate their surroundings and experience different things, their brain creates so-called cognitive maps, which are internal representations of environments or tasks. These mental maps are eventually generalized into schemas,…

Skin-based test could improve diagnosis of debilitating neurodegenerative disease

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-skin-based-diagnosis-debilitating-neurodegenerative.html

Published: April 29, 2025 17:25

Researchers at the University Health Network (UHN) and the University of Toronto have developed a skin-based test that can detect signature features of progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), a rare neurodegenerative disease that affects body movements,…

Sema3A signaling molecule found to have significant cartilage-protective effects in osteoarthritis

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-sema3a-molecule-significant-cartilage-effects.html

Published: April 29, 2025 17:18

Osteoarthritis (OA), a common degenerative joint disease that affects millions of people worldwide, particularly targets the knee joint. Over time, the cartilage within the joint wears down, leading to damage in the underlying bone and resulting in pain,…

Brain damage in key region increases susceptibility to others' impulsive choices, study finds

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-brain-key-region-susceptibility-impulsive.html

Published: April 29, 2025 14:44

People who have damage to a specific part of their brains are more likely to be impulsive, and new research has found that damage also makes them more likely to be influenced by other people.

How tau protein weakens the brain's vascular defenses in Alzheimer's disease

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-tau-protein-weakens-brain-vascular.html

Published: April 29, 2025 14:43

A harmful form of the tau protein, which builds up in Alzheimer's disease and similar brain disorders, can directly damage blood vessels in the brain, according to a new study by researchers at the Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University. It…

Negative expectations have stronger and longer-lasting effects on pain than positive ones

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-negative-stronger-longer-effects-pain.html

Published: April 29, 2025 13:25

Negative expectations can worsen perceived pain more strongly—and for longer—than positive expectations can make it feel better, according to new research.

Cancer-linked proteins have different functions in neurodevelopmental disorders, study finds

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-cancer-linked-proteins-functions-neurodevelopmental.html

Published: April 29, 2025 13:09

Some proteins in human cells that are implicated in cancer also have causal roles in neurodevelopmental disorders, raising the possibility of repurposing targeted cancer therapies to help address neurodevelopmental diseases.

New biomarker for predicting progression of multiple sclerosis identified

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-biomarker-multiple-sclerosis.html

Published: April 29, 2025 12:31

Researchers at the University of Turku, Finland, have discovered a new biomarker that can predict the progression of multiple sclerosis (MS).

Sleep disorders and sleep deprivation leave different traces in the brain, study shows

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-disorders-deprivation-brain.html

Published: April 29, 2025 12:00

About 20% to 35% of the population suffers from chronic sleep disorders—and up to half of all people in older age. Moreover, almost every teenager or adult has experienced short-term sleep deprivation at some point. There are many reasons for not getting…

How resilient nerve cells fight back against dementia

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-resilient-nerve-cells-dementia.html

Published: April 29, 2025 11:53

A UCL research team has found clues as to why some nerve cells die in dementia and not others, through a new study in fruit flies. The study, published in Cell Reports, is helping to answer one of the biggest questions in dementia research, which is…

Stroke in young people is not that rare, says stroke specialist

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-young-people-rare-specialist.html

Published: April 29, 2025 07:09

People typically think of stroke as an elderly person's ailment. Stroke risk does increase by age, but young adults (ages 18–55) can have strokes, too. In fact, the proportion of strokes affecting young adults in the United States has been growing for the…

Mice develop fibromyalgia-like pain after receiving gut microbiota from human patients

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-mice-fibromyalgia-pain-gut-microbiota.html

Published: April 29, 2025 06:50

McGill University-led research has discovered that transplanting gut microbiota from women with fibromyalgia into mice induces pain, immune activation, metabolomic changes, and reduced skin innervation.

Brain wave decoder helps control spinal cord stimulation

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-brain-decoder-spinal-cord.html

Published: April 28, 2025 17:00

When a person sustains an injury to the spinal cord, the normal communication between the brain and the spinal circuits below the injury is interrupted, resulting in paralysis. Because the brain is functioning normally, as is the spinal cord below the…

New non-invasive brain stimulation technique shows significant reduction in depression, anxiety and PTSD symptoms

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-invasive-brain-technique-significant-reduction.html

Published: April 28, 2025 16:40

Patients suffering from depression, anxiety and trauma-related disorders experienced significant relief from their symptoms after a new treatment that uses sound waves to modulate deep brain activity, according to new research from Dell Medical School at…

Trouble hearing in noisy places and crowded spaces? A new algorithm could help hearing aid users

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-noisy-crowded-spaces-algorithm-aid.html

Published: April 28, 2025 16:34

When a group of friends gets together at a bar or gathers for an intimate dinner, conversations can quickly multiply and mix, with different groups and pairings chatting over and across one another.

New insight into how the brain switches gears could help Parkinson's patients

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-insight-brain-gears-parkinson-patients.html

Published: April 28, 2025 16:17

New USC research offers an unseen insight into how the brain shifts gears. The researchers have discovered that our innate ability to make quick changes in motor function is the result of a unique brain mechanism.

Dopamine signals when a fear can be forgotten, study shows

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-dopamine-forgotten.html

Published: April 28, 2025 15:00

Dangers come but dangers also go and when they do, the brain has an "all-clear" signal that teaches it to extinguish its fear.

Rat study explores the motivations behind helping friends

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-rat-explores-friends.html

Published: April 28, 2025 13:00

Why are some people more helpful than others? In a new JNeurosci paper, Inbal Bartal, from Tel Aviv University, and colleagues used rats to explore why some individuals may be more receptive to the distress of others and how this information leads to…

AI analyzes patient data to detect multiple sclerosis progression, improving early treatment decisions

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-ai-patient-multiple-sclerosis-early.html

Published: April 28, 2025 12:11

To provide the right treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS), it is important to know when the disease changes from relapsing-remitting to secondary progressive, a transition that is currently recognized on average three years too late. Researchers at…

Circular breathwork induces altered states of consciousness linked to improved mental health

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-circular-breathwork-states-consciousness-linked.html

Published: April 28, 2025 10:10

Researchers from the Ernst Strüngmann Institute for Neuroscience, the MIND Foundation, alongside other collaborators, have found that reductions in carbon dioxide saturation during circular breathwork sessions were correlated with the emergence of altered…

Head injuries are a growing risk for anesthesiologists, experts warn

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-injuries-anesthesiologists-experts.html

Published: April 28, 2025 07:10

One moment, Dr. Cornelius Sullivan was standing over a patient during surgery. The next, he woke up in an ambulance on the way to the emergency room.

Sleep's dual role: How it consolidates memories while preparing the brain for new learning

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-04-dual-role-memories-brain.html

Published: April 28, 2025 05:00

Memory formation, storage, and retrieval are fundamental processes that define who we are and how we interact with the world. At the cellular level, these processes rely on specialized neurons called engram cells—neuronal populations that physically encode…